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As a result of pro-oxidative conditions, a variety of transcription factors, including nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-B), AP-1, p53, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR), -catenin/Wnt, and Nrf2, are activated 83,84,85,86 (Fig
Sodium retention leads to water retention, but because of increased portal hydrostatic pressure and decreased intravascular colloid pressure, the fluid leaks into the so-called third space, causing ascites and edema
The mechanisms behind B12 deficiency in metformin users are multifactorial but are probably related to intestinal absorption, so it seems sensible to assume that oral B12 replacement may be less effective, although there is little evidence in this area